WAYS TO REPLENISH THE VOCABULARY OF THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE WITH GERMAN BORROWINGS

Summary The problem of lexical borrowing occupies one of the main places in linguistics, since the borrowing of foreign words is one of the ways to replenish the vocabulary of the language of any people. The reasons for borrowing are very diverse: this is the need to nominate new items, and some cultural superiority of the German nation in certain areas of activity, and the presence of bilingualism, and the spread of fashion for German. But the main reason should be considered the historical ties between the Russian and German peoples, since in the process of their relationship the need for borrowing was revealed. True, the etymological analysis of this vocabulary suggests that in most cases these are not native words in German, so we consider it appropriate, considering borrowings from German in Russian, to single out purely German words (group A), German words that came into Russian language through an intermediary language (group B), words that appeared in Russian from German, but are ultimately traced back to other languages (group C), and words that were influenced by two or more intermediary languages, one of which was German (group D). The research is based on actual data obtained by different linguists, and on the results of the author's own observations.


Introduction
The problem of lexical borrowing occupies one of the main places in linguistics, since the borrowing of foreign words is one of the ways to replenish the vocabulary of the language of any people. A large group of foreign borrowings in Russian is made up of German words. The establishment of contact between Germany and Russia dates back to the beginning of the 11 th century: the exchange of ambassadors, the establishment of family ties between the German and Russian royal houses. In the 12 th century, German-Russian relations were strengthened due to the trade of German merchants with Russians. Novgorod, Pskov, Kyiv and Smolensk were major trading centers in Russia. The trade agreements reached us by the Germans is the convergence of the weight of the silver mark in Silesia with the average weight of the Kyiv hryvnia (159 g), although along with this monetary unit in Germany, the Germans with Novgorod and Smolensk, prisoners -one in 1195, the other -in 1229 (Ghrekov, 1951: 348).
One of the superfluous evidence of Russian trade with there was a common mark weighing 233 g and a Cologne mark of 154 g (Ghrekov, 1951: 394).
In the 14 th century, on the shores of the Baltic Sea, the North German cities organized the trade and political union of the Hansa. Russia played an important role in trade with the Hansa. "The importance of Novgorod and other Russian cities in Hansa trade was so great that sometimes major events in Russia were the subject of special discussions at the congress of Hanseatic cities, as was the case in 1381, when Hanseatic merchants received news of the Battle of Kulikovo", writes the famous historian M. N. Tikhomirov (Tikhomirov, 1968: 191).

Aim and Objectives
The aim and objectives of the study are to clarify the nature of German borrowings in the Russian language, identify the semantic groups that they form, and identify those historical conditions that contributed to the process of borrowing German words, since, according to many linguists, the historical ties of peoples should be considered the main reason for borrowings.

Results
Stable trade relations with Germany in the 11 th -14 th centuries contributed to the borrowing of words from the Russian language from the German language. True, the etymological analysis of this vocabulary suggests that in most cases these are not native words in German, therefore we consider it expedient here and in the future, considering borrowings from German in Russian, to single out purely German words (group A), German words , which came into the Russian language through an intermediary language (group B), words that appeared in Russian from German, but are ultimately traced back to other languages (group C), and words that were influenced by two or more intermediary languages, one of which was German (group D). Group A also includes borrowed compound words formed in German, one part of which is not native. Groups C and D are classified as German borrowings in some way conditionally, namely, if in German they have undergone certain phonetic-accentological changes, that is, if the German language has left its imprint on them.
Etymologically, this borrowed vocabulary is very diverse. The group C predominates in the name of fabrics. Perhaps this is due to the fact that the Hansa, as a trading union, very soon began to play an important role in world trade, and many goods from the East and from other countries came to Russia from Germany. Such was the way of their names.
The names of the German coins were transferred to the Russians through Poland (group B). This is quite natural, since Poland conducted a brisk trade, both with Germany and with Russia. The inevitable companion of trade of that time was robbery, robbery and even wars, the number of which increased significantly with the enslavement of the Baltic Slavs by the Germans and the formation on their territory of the Order of the Sword-bearers, who were preparing to subjugate the northern Russian Slavs beyond the Baltic (Kostomarov, 1903: 25). Constant military conflicts with the Order led to linguistic contacts between Russians and Germans, which resulted in the appearance in Russian of words from German, acquainting us with the life and life of the knights of the sword, namely бискуп Д -епископ, майстер (местер, мештер and some other options) С -глава Ордена, рат(ь) -ман А -член магистрата в древней Риге, буркгимистр А -бургомистр, бровст (провст) С -благочинный, фоготь С -судья, ридель, рытор (рындель) А -рыцарь, кгвалт В -насилие, рада В etc. Bogoroditsky V.A. in the list of his words related to the German borrowings of this period, the word "рада" is absent, however, according to the "Краткого этимологического словаря русского языка", it has been noted in monuments since the 14 th century (Shanskij, 1961: 278). This is mainly native German vocabulary, but a few words of religious content are raised to the Latin language, that is, to the language of peoples who, like the Germans, professed the Catholic faith.
Devastating wars were replaced by a temporary truce, and then the German titled people came to Russia -герцики or герьцюки А, т. е. герцоги, тянулись потешники, who in Russia were called шпильманы А as in German. The appearance of the word "shpilman" in Russian dates back to V. BUT. Bogoroditsky in the 13 th century, although there is a suggestion that it appeared in Russia in the 11 th century (Ghrot, 1899: 386). It is possible that the word entered the oral language in the 11 th century, and was recorded in monuments in the 13 th century.
In the 15th century, during the reign of Ivan III, the Russian centralized state was formed. Western historians note that his reign is characterized by the establishment of all kinds of connections between Moscow and the West (Forstreuter, 1938: 54). These ties were strengthened and expanded by the successor of Ivan III. In the 15 th -17 th centuries. Russia has very close military contacts with Germany. And the reason for this is not only that in the second half of the 15th century the Russian people had to defend their borders from the Germans near Pskov and Novgorod, and in the 16th century to wage a 25-year war with Livonia, during which a crushing blow was dealt to the Order of the Sword, but and in the fact that already under Ivan IV German military specialists were invited to Russian military service, German military equipment was used (Ghrekov, 1963: 200), and from the beginning of the 17 th century, from the reign of Boris Godunov, mercenary German troops appeared in Russia in general. The coming to power of the Romanov dynasty was also marked by the fact that a large number of German soldiers were taken into Russian military service and the army was reorganized, establishing near the old noble cavalry and archery infantry a new army on a foreign model and with foreign names -рейтары, драгуны, солдаты (Solovjev, 1961: 605).
The introduction of a semi-regular army by itself raised the question of the means of its armament. In order to equip the army and navy well, it was necessary to expand the scale of metallurgical production. Russia could not fulfil this task on its own, so it was decided to call on foreign knowledge and capital for help. To this end, in 1628, Tsar Mikhail Romanov summoned a large group of miners from Saxony to work in Siberia and the Urals. A metallurgical plant is being built in Tula, where all the blast furnaces were supplied by visiting Germans (Trebbin, 1957: 3). In 1676, by order of the tsar, Jacob Eisenberger went back to Germany to recruit a new group of German craftsmen who were supposed to teach Russians the extraction and processing of metals, as well as alloying (Trebbin, 1957: 5). The appeal to Germany for help is not at all accidental, since in the 16 th -17 th centuries in mining technology and the art of miners, this country was in first place in the world.
Etymologically, these groups are made up of native German vocabulary, most often borrowed directly. Only a small part of the German words became known to Russians through the Polish language. This is due to the fact that Poland adopted something from Germany, organizing its state administration. Being in closer relations with Poland than with Germany, Russia borrowed German names from the Polish language. Close contacts with Poland are also evidenced by German borrowings that came to us through this country, from the field of arts and medicine.
The nature of borrowings, their fate and role in the process of structural formation and development of norms of the literary language to a large extent depends on the nature and type of language contacts themselves.
Russian-Polish relations of the 16 th -early 18 th centuries are defined, in contrast to territorial and dialectal contacts, as cultural-historical and political ties, since they were based not on a territorial community, but on the growing diplomatic and cultural contacts of Russia with the West with the growing influence of the Moscow state in the international arena. These connections were not only written, but also oral, which is a very significant factor in the degree of mastering borrowings and their interfering impact on the language system. The Polish language, well known to the lower strata of the urban population since the time of the gentry intervention, in the second half of the 17 th -early 18 th centuries. enters the life of the Russian nobility as an attribute of European culture, borrowed through the Polish public life. Polonisms are spreading in the everyday language, which supported their use in the literary language. The degree of their normativity increased.
The specified nature of the contacts determined, on the one hand, the scope of borrowings, on the other hand, the degree of penetration of the latter into the structure of the language. The most important source of Polish borrowings of this period, however, were literary contacts, in particular, translated literature. Translations from Polish take in the 17 th century leading place among the translated literature of Russia of that time. It is important to note the fact that this literature was especially widespread among the Russian reading public of the late 17 thearly 18 th centuries. If in the 30s of the 18 th century the number of translations from the Polish language as a whole is significantly reduced, especially translations of scientific and technical literature from Western European languages, this does not at all apply to those translations that constitute the so-called grassroots diverse democratic production (Western plays of the Russian repertoire, short story, novel, satirical literature such as facies, fables, etc.). For the most part, these are Polish versions of works of Western European literature (there are relatively few translations from Polish originals).
An essential feature of the Polish-Russian literary contacts of the period under study was their mediated nature. A well-known fact is the involvement in the second half of the 17 th century into the cultural and historical orbit of Russian life in the so-called south-western, Ukrainian, territories, liberated as a result of the national liberation struggle from the centuriesold colonization of the Polish gentry and reunited with Russia in a single state, the influx of cultural forces from Ukraine, which possessed during this period major scientific centres (Lvov fraternal school, Kiev-Mohyla collegium, etc.), became the reason that "the so-called South-Western Russia becomes in the second half of the 17 th century mediator between Muscovite Rus and Western Europe, and the Russian literary language is strongly influenced by the Ukrainian literary language" (Ozerova, 1976: 143).
A sharp increase in German borrowings in the Russian language is observed at the end of the 17 th (since 1695) -the beginning of the 18 th century, i.e. with the coming to power of Peter the Great (Rejcak, 1963: 10). Having taken power, Peter I had an ardent desire to "make Russia a strong, powerful power, which would be on the same level with the Western European states" (Smirnov, 1910: 4).
Based on many facts, he was convinced that, first of all, a complete restructuring of the central administration was necessary. Peter made inquiries about the structure of central institutions in the advanced Western European countries and chose Germany as a model. For a long time and with great trouble, learned lawyers and experienced officials, secretaries and scribes were recruited in Germany, who could arrange business in Russian institutions (Kljuchevskij, 1957: 168).
In the borrowings of the 18 th century, several German words appeared from the military field, which came through the French language (cf. брешь, бреша) or are traced back to a French source. This is due to the strengthening of the military power of France on the European continent in the 18 th century, as a result of which this country was on the same level with Germany.
Maritime terminology came into the Russian language mainly from Holland and England, although a small number of maritime terms were also taken from the Germans, namely: бухта А, лавировать С, лоцман С. But here, too, different influences intersected, which were reflected in the "mixed", colorful appearance of foreign words. For example, they wrote hafen, matros -in German pronunciation, but they also used the forms of haven, sailorin Dutch (Sobolevskij, 1904: 8).
It is impossible to create an army only by reorganization. She needs to be well equipped. And Peter spent most of his efforts on the development of the manufacturing industry, manufactories, and especially mining, as the most necessary for the army. During the reign of Peter, dozens of Russian students were scattered throughout all the main industrial cities of Europe, for the education of which Peter paid dearly to foreign masters (Kljuchevskij, 1957: 168).
The colloquial and everyday vocabulary of the Russian language is replete with purely German words and borrowings belonging to group C. We find the explanation for the latter in the fact that these names were once borrowed by the German people along with the borrowed subject, which happens quite often.
However, already in the last years of the life of Peter I, a noble opposition was created against him, dissatisfied with the fact that the tsar greatly favoured foreigners. After Peter's death, the Germans reached the very throne (Bironism and subsequent years to Elizabeth), which deeply offended the national feeling of the Russians, so discontent is growing in the country not only among the nobles, but also among the broadest masses of the people, resulting in a speech against the government. This speech was held under the national slogan -"against the German yoke", although its reasons were deeper -dissatisfaction with the policy of tsarism, the policy of oppression. The coup d'état that took place in the country created the conditions for the accession to the throne of the daughter of Peter I, Elizabeth. Realizing well that she owed her coming to power to the increased popular feeling of anger at the Germans, Elizabeth, first of all, resigned many Germans who were in the service in Russia and sent them out of the country. Political events are reflected in the language. Since the 2nd half of the 18 th century, a struggle has been going on in the language for its purification from foreign, especially German words. The movement for cleaning the language was called purism (from Latin purus -clean). During this period, foreign words are borrowed very rarely and there are almost no borrowings from the German language. However, from the 30s of the 19 th century, German words began to penetrate into the Russian language again, but their number is extremely limited, and they refer mainly to those areas where Germany has achieved a clear superiority over other countries, or these are words that acquaint us with the life of Germany, with its customs, since in the 19 th century Germany, embarking on the path of capitalist development, quickly became one of the most advanced Western European states. Borrowings of this era form the following semantic groups: political concepts, scientific terms, technical terms.

Conclusion
The etymological analysis of borrowings of the 19 th century speaks of the great and direct ties of the Russian state with Germany. It is extremely rare now that Poland acts as an intermediary, which in the 16 th , 17 th and early 18 th years was the conductor of many German words into the Russian language.
So, in the period from the 11 th to the 19 th centuries. There are many borrowings in the Russian language. The reasons for borrowing are very diverse: this is the need to nominate new items, and some cultural superiority of the German nation in certain areas of activity, and the presence of bilingualism, and the spread of fashion for German. But the main reason should be considered the historical ties between the Russian and German peoples, since in the process of their relationship the need for borrowing was revealed. Borrowed vocabulary is combined by periods into thematic (semantic) groups. So, the beginning of trade and the neighbourhood of German knights in the 11 th -14 th centuries led to the emergence of German words related to trade, life and life of the Order of the Sword. 15 th -18 th centuries gave us a large number of military terms, since Russia and Germany had close contacts in this area. With the direct participation of the Germans in Russia, the mining and mining industries developed, which affected the terminology of these industries in Russia. Political ties contributed to the acquaintance with German words from the field of public life and state administration, and the implementation of administrative reforms in Russia along the lines of Germany caused a significant influx of German administrative names in the Russian language. Cultural ties led to borrowings from the field of arts and everyday life. The prosperity of trade in Germany enriched the Russian language with German trade terms, and since trade is closely connected with transport, German words related to the field of transport naturally penetrated the Russian language.
Thanks to industrial, scientific and cultural success, Germany soon attracted the attention of other peoples. Russian people were keenly interested in the life of this country, the manners and customs of the Germans. With the advent of new objects and phenomena, Russians borrowed their German names, united by us into a group of items of everyday nomenclature.